Inherited musculoskeletal disorders

Cervical vertebral instability (Wobbler syndrome)

roblib — Tue, 27 Apr 2010 19:36:01 +0000

What is ... ?:

In cervical vertebral instability, there is compression of the spinal cord in the neck (cervical) region. There are seven vertebrae in the neck which surround and protect the spinal cord. Movement between these bones allows normal movement of the neck. With this condition, there are abnormalities in the structure of the vertebrae, of the ligaments that connect them, and/or of the disks between them. The reasons for these abnormalities are not clear; inheritance is a factor, and overfeeding in rapidly-growing large breed dogs is also thought to play a role.
The result is instability between adjacent vertebrae, narrowing (stenosis) of the spinal canal, and pressure on the spinal cord. The consequences of compression of the spinal cord in the neck region are weakness and incoordination in all 4 legs - hence the name "wobbler".

How is ... inherited?:

Unknown. It has been suggested to be autosomal recessive in the Great Dane, Doberman pinscher, and borzoi.

What breeds are affected by ... ?:

What does ... mean to your dog & you?:

The main signs with this disease are weakness and incoordination (ataxia); these signs begin insidiously and worsen slowly over several months. It may look like your dog doesn't know where his or her feet are. This will be most obvious when s/he is rising from lying down, or negotiating a turn or stairs. Over time, your dog may develop a stiff, high-stepping, exaggerated gait that gradually worsens.

The signs are bilateral and symmetrical (meaning they occur equally on both sides). All 4 legs are eventually affected, with the hind legs affected first, and more severely. Sometimes there is a sudden change for the worse as a result of minor trauma. Doberman pinschers often experience severe neck pain (as a result of disk herniation- see intervertebral disk disease) and may develop rigid front legs.
This is a chronic, progressive disease (ie. it gets worse with time). Without treatment, your dog's condition will gradually deteriorate. With therapy (either medical management or surgery) the prospect for recovery remains guarded.

How is ... diagnosed?:

Your veterinarian will suspect this disease if your large-breed dog displays the characteristic clinical signs: slowly progressive, bilateral, symmetrical hind leg weakness and ataxia. The front legs are affected after the hind legs, and usually less severely. Your dog’s neck may be painful, and may be held flexed slightly downward. Plain x-rays are taken to show structural abnormalities in the vertebrae, but myelography is necessary to determine if there is spinal cord compression. In order to do a myelogram, your dog is anesthetized, dye is injected into the spinal canal, and x-rays are taken which will show the exact location(s) of spinal cord compression. This information is essential in considering treatment options, especially if surgical repair is to be attempted. Other imaging techniques, such as CT scans and MRI, may also be used. Your veterinarian may refer you to a veterinary referral centre for these specialized radiographic techniques, and for potential surgery.

How is ... treated?:

The type of treatment chosen for this condition will depend on a number of factors, including the severity and duration of your dog’s signs, and the extent of spinal cord compression apparent on radiography. The goals of medical management are to minimize neck movement (through confinement and use of a neck brace) and use anti-inflammatory medications to prevent further damage to the spinal cord. Medical management may be effective for weeks to years, although it does not address the underlying problem of spinal cord compression. A variety ofsurgical techniques have been developed (and more are being developed) which attempt to both alleviate the spinal cord compression and stabilize the vertebrae. Surgery is not without risk, including a variety of potentially severe postoperative complications. Ultimately, the prospects for recovery depend on a number of factors, including duration and severity of clinical signs, and whether the spinal cord is compressed at a single site or at multiple sites.

Because of the requirement for both specialized radiographic and surgical techniques in treating this condition, your veterinarian may provide initial neck stabilization and anti-inflammatory therapy for your dog, and then refer you to a veterinary referral centre for further treatment.

For the veterinarian:

The two most commonly affected breeds have characteristic lesions; older Doberman pinschers frequently show ventral spinal cord compression, while young Great Danes show dorsal spinal cord compression. Lesions are more common at the more caudal cervical segments (C5-6 and C6-7). Underlying systemic or metabolic diseases may also be present. "Traction" myelograms can be used to demonstrate the dynamic component of this disease (instability between vertebrae). Forced extension of the neck may exacerbate spinal cord compression.

Breeding advice:

Although the exact mechanism of inheritance is not known, dogs with cervical vertebral instability should not be bred. (Unfortunately, because this condition often has a later onset, dogs may be bred before any problems appear). It is best to avoid breeding their parents or siblings as well, who are considered potential carriers of the trait.

The best ways to avoid this condition in a large breed dog are to inquire before purchase if there is any family history of vertebral instability, to refrain from providing mineral supplements to the diet, and to feed several small meals daily (rather than ad libitum feeding).
FOR MORE INFORMATION ABOUT THIS DISORDER, PLEASE SEE YOUR VETERINARIAN.

Resources:

LeCouteur RA, Child G. 1995. Diseases of the spinal cord. In EJ Ettinger and EC Feldman (eds) Textbook of Veterinary Internal Medicine, p. 629-696. WB Saunders Co, Toronto.

Craniomandibular osteopathy ("lion jaw")

roblib — Tue, 27 Apr 2010 19:38:26 +0000

What is ... ?:

In this disease, there is excessive, abnormal bone growth on the skull (cranium) and lower jaw (mandible). Extra bone grows on the surface of the lower jaw, making it wider and thicker. It may also affect the jaw joint (temporomandibular joint). In severe cases, the excess bone may prevent the jaw joint from opening and closing normally. Abnormal bone growth will typically stop and begin to regress by one year of age.

How is ... inherited?:

The mode of inheritance is autosomal recessive in West Highland white terriers. In other breeds, the mode of inheritance has not been determined.

What breeds are affected by ... ?:

What does ... mean to your dog & you?:

Your puppy (3-8 months of age) may have a swollen and painful lower law, or have trouble opening the mouth or eating, or drool excessively. You may not notice all of these problems continuously; the signs may seem to flare up at times then get better. This disease is "self-limiting." After your puppy reaches one year of age, the condition will probably not get worse, and should get better. However if there has been severe bone growth, especially involving the jaw joint, the excess bone may not go away on its own. In some cases, particularly if the jaw joint is not working properly, your dog may need surgery. Your puppy’s condition is more serious and the prognosis is guarded if there is excessive bone growth on the base of the skull.

How is ... diagnosed?:

Your veterinarian will diagnose this disease based on physical examination, history, and x-rays.

How is ... treated?:

There is no treatment to stop the disease from getting worse; it will usually get better as your puppy grows up. Pain can be treated with anti-inflammatory drugs. Your puppy may need surgery in certain severe cases.

For the veterinarian: Bony proliferation is usually bilateral. Clinical signs of this disease (including swollen mandible which may be painful, and difficulty or pain opening the mouth), may be intermittent, and may be associated with pyrexia. Radiographs may show involvement of bones of the skull other than the mandible and temporomandibular region. In some cases, bone biopsy and histopathology may be helpful in differentiating this disease from other conditions involving excess bone growth. This disease is self-limiting, and excess bone should not proliferate beyond one year of age. Excess bone may not completely regress. Pain may be managed with anti-inflammatory drugs.

Breeding advice:

Affected dogs should not be used for breeding, even if they appear to recover completely. Breeding of parents (carriers) and siblings (suspect carriers) should also be avoided. The Institute for Genetic Disease Control in Animals (GDC) and the Orthopedic Foundation for Animals (OFA) maintain registries for this condition in terrier breeds.

FOR MORE INFORMATION ABOUT THIS DISORDER, PLEASE SEE YOUR VETERINARIAN.

Resources:

Johnson, KA, Watson, ADJ, Page, RL. 1995. Skeletal disease. In EJ Ettinger and EC Feldman(eds.) Textbook of Veterinary Internal Medicine, p. 2077-2103. W.B. Saunders Co., Toronto.

Institute for Genetic Disease Control in Animals - www.vetmed.ucdavis.edu/gdc/gdc.html

Orthopedic Foundation for Animals - www.offa.org

Elbow dysplasia - OCD of the elbow

roblib — Tue, 27 Apr 2010 19:41:06 +0000

What is ... ?:

The term elbow dysplasia refers to several conditions that affect the elbow joint: osteochondrosis of the medial humeral condyle, fragmented medial coronoid process, ununited anconeal process, and incongruent elbow. More than one of these conditions may be present, and this disease often affects both front legs. An affected dog shows forelimb lameness and elbow pain. These conditions may actually be different manifestations of a single disease process, osteochondritis dissecans (OCD) . OCD is abnormal maturation of cartilage (the specialized connective tissue from which bone develops). While this in an inherited defect, environmental factors such as diet, activity, and trauma also have a role in the development and progression of the disease.

Osteochondritis dissecans (OCD): A fragment of cartilage peels away from the bone, within the joint.
Osteochondrosis of medial humeral condyle: OCD develops on the elbow end of the humerus (the long bone in the front leg above the elbow).
Fragmented medial coronoid process and ununited anconeal process: The coronoid and anconeal processes are small bones which fuse with the main part of the ulna as the animal matures. (The ulna and the radius are the two bones which make up the front leg between wrist and elbow). These terms describe the condition where those processes either break off from the ulna, or fail to fuse normally.
Incongruent elbow: The bones which form the elbow joint grow at different rates and do not fit together properly.

How is ... inherited?:

This is a polygenic condition (more than one gene is necessary to cause the disease), although it is not currently known how many or which genes are responsible. Environmental factors such as over-feeding, which causes fast weight-gain and growth, can also affect the development of this condition in dogs that are genetically predisposed to it.

What breeds are affected by ... ?:

What does ... mean to your dog & you?:

Lameness usually starts insidiously at 7 to 10 months of age. It is present every day, and may be most obvious when you dog first gets up, or starts to walk or run. The prognosis (the likely outcome) depends on how far the disease has progressed when treatment begins. Good clinical results (ie. your dog will not be painful) are usually seen if treatment starts early, before osteoarthritis (degenerative changes in the joint) has developed. If left untreated, your dog’s pain and lameness will gradually get worse.

How is ... diagnosed?:

The initial lameness may be very subtle with this condition, and it may be some time before it can be documented or diagnosed. Your veterinarian will suspect elbow dysplasia if you have a young, fast-growing, large breed dog (especially those breeds listed above), with forelimb lameness and elbow pain. S/he will perform a physical exam and watch your dog walk or run to confirm which limb, and which joint, is painful. X-rays are necessary to diagnose elbow dysplasia. Your veterinarian will probably x-ray both elbows, because this disease is often present in both sides even if your dog is only lame on one side. If possible, s/he may do a CT scan; this technique will show certain bone fragments better than plain x-ray films.

How is ... treated?:

Surgery is usually recommended to remove a bone or cartilage fragment. If unequal bone growth is the problem, surgery may help to relieve the pressure at the joint.

Medical management recommendations include monitoring the diet (to avoid excess weight gain and fast growth), and controlling exercise. Medications such as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs may help with pain relief. "Chondroprotective agents" such as glucosamine may also be prescribed.

Breeding advice:

Do not breed affected dogs, or dogs which produce offspring with elbow dysplasia. The Orthopedic Foundation of America (OFA - www.offa.org) maintains an elbow registry screening programme, as do European organizations. The Institute for Genetic Disease Control in Animals (GDC -www.vetmed.ucdavis.edu/gdc/gdc.html) provides evaluation of elbows as recommended by the International Elbow Working Group.

FOR MORE INFORMATION ABOUT THIS DISORDER, PLEASE SEE YOUR VETERINARIAN.

Resources:

Abstracts of the 7th Annual Meeting of the International Elbow Working Group. 1996. Veterinary Comparative Orthopaedics and Traumatology. 9(2):58-71.

Bennett D, May C. 1995. Joint diseases of dogs and cats. In EJ Ettinger and EC Feldman(eds). Textbook of Veterinary Internal Medicine, pp. 2032-2077.WB Saunders Co., Toronto.

Schrader SC. 1995 Differential diagnosis of nontraumatic causes of lameness in young growing dogs In JD Bonagura (ed.) Kirk's Current Veterinary Therapy XII, pp. 1171-1180. WB Saunders Co., Toronto

Hemivertebra

roblib — Wed, 28 Apr 2010 17:34:38 +0000

What is ... ?:

This is a condition where there is abnormal bony development of one or more of the vertebrae - the bones that make up the spinal column. The main part of each vertebra should look like a spool when seen from the side. A hemivertebra looks like a wedge or triangle. Hemivertebra can occur in dogs that have other kinds of vertebral malformations as well. Whether the condition causes problems for the dog depends on what part of the spinal column is affected, and whether there is compression of the spinal cord.

How is ... inherited?:

The condition is autosomal recessive in the German short-haired pointer and German shepherd. The mode of inheritance is unknown in other breeds.

What breeds are affected by ... ?:

What does ... mean to your dog & you?:

A hemivertebra does not necessarily cause problems for your dog, unless it causes compression of the nerves (the spinal cord) within the spinal column. This may occur in two ways - the abnormally shaped vertebra may put pressure on the spinal cord directly, or it may be an unstable "weak link" in the vertebral column. Spinal cord compression causes back pain, weakness or inability to get up or walk, and usually requires surgery.

How is ... diagnosed?:

Radiographs (x-rays) are necessary to diagnose hemivertebra. Your veterinarian may discover that your dog has hemivertebra while taking x-rays for another purpose. If your dog shows signs of spinal cord compression (back pain, weakness, or inability to get up or walk), special x-ray techniques (such as a myelogram) will show if the compression is caused by a hemivertebra.

How is ... treated?:

Unless your dog has spinal cord compression, there is no need to treat hemivertebra. Where there is spinal cord compression, your dog will probably need surgery.

Breeding advice:

It is best not to breed affected animals. Parents of affected German shepherds and German short-haired pointers are carriers of the trait and should not be bred again.
FOR MORE INFORMATION ABOUT THIS DISORDER, PLEASE SEE YOUR VETERINARIAN.

Resources:

Bailey CS, Morgan JP. 1992. Congenital spinal malformations. Veterinary Clinics of North America Small Animal Practice. 22(4):985-1015.

LeCouteur RA, Child G. 1995. Diseases of the spinal cord. In EJ Ettinger and EC Feldman (eds.) Textbook of Veterinary Internal Medicine, pp. 629-696. WB Saunders Co., Toronto.

Hereditary myopathy - Labrador retriever/Bouviers des Flandres myopathy

roblib — Wed, 28 Apr 2010 17:54:19 +0000

What is ... ?:

Hereditary myopathy means an inherited disease of muscle. Labrador retriever myopathy is a rare inherited disease which causes muscle weakness because of a deficiency of type II muscle fibres. The first sign is an abnormal, stiff gait, which progresses to a generalized weakness by about 5 months of age.
Bouvier des Flandres myopathy is another rare disease causing generalized muscle weakness. Megaesophagus is common.

How is ... inherited?:

In Labrador retriever myopathy, the mode of inheritance is autosomal recessive. The mode of inheritance is unknown in the Bouvier.

What breeds are affected by ... ?:

Labrador retriever

What does ... mean to your dog & you?:

Labrador retriever myopathy: The first thing you may notice is that your Lab puppy has an abnormal gait (sometimes called "bunny-hopping"). By around 5 months of age, your pup's growth will be stunted, and s/he will have generalized weakness which may come and go, and will probably be worse with exercise, excitement, or cold temperatures. As the condition worsens, the muscles will atrophy (shrink), making certain bones appear to protrude abnormally. Other than the muscle weakness, most dogs remain bright and alert, and in many, the disease will stabilize and clinical signs will not worsen beyond 6-8 months of age. Some dogs will show gradual improvement.
There is no specific treatment or cure for this disease. Dogs that are severely affected will become very debilitated. Others who are only mildly affected have a good prognosis for a quiet life.
Bouvier des Flandres myopathy: The disorder becomes evident in young adults (around 2 years of age), who have a peculiar gait, generalized weakness which becomes worse with exercise, and muscle atrophy (shrinkage). Megaesophagus is common with this condition in the Bouvier, causing regurgitation after eating and the potential complication of aspiration pneumonia.

How is ... diagnosed?:

Labrador retriever myopathy: This disease is one of the rule-outs your veterinarian will consider if your young Labrador retriever (6 weeks-7 months of age) shows signs of muscle weakness. To reach a diagnosis, your vet may measure the response of muscles to electrical stimulation (electomyography) and will take muscle samples (muscle biopsies) from your dog for evaluation by a veterinary pathologist.
Bouvier des Flandres myopathy: Diagnosis is confirmed by electromyography.

How is ... treated?:

There is no cure for either disease. Some of the clinical signs of Labrador retriever myopathy may be reduced with medication such as diazepam. There is no specific treatment for megaesophagus, but it may be managed by feeding small, frequent, high-caloric meals from an elevated location so that gravity assists the passage of food. Different consistencies of foods can be tried to determine which causes the least regurgitation.

For the veterinarian:

CK is elevated in both conditions. Profound creatinuria (up to 30 times normal) is common with Labrador retriever myopathy.

Breeding advice:

Affected Labrador retrievers, and their parents (carriers of the trait) and siblings (suspect carriers) should not be bred. Although the inheritance in Bouviers is unknown, affected animals should not be bred, and it is preferable to avoid breeding their parents or siblings animals as well.
FOR MORE INFORMATION ABOUT THIS DISORDER, PLEASE SEE YOUR VETERINARIAN.

Resources:

Kornegay JN. 1995. Disorders of the skeletal muscles. In EJ Ettinger and EC Feldman (eds) Textbook of Veterinary Internal Medicine, pp.727-736. WB Saunders Co., Toronto.

Ackerman L. 1999. The Genetic Connection: A Guide to Health Problems in Purebred Dogs, 115-116. AAHA Press,Lakewood, Colorado.

Hip dysplasia

roblib — Wed, 28 Apr 2010 18:02:17 +0000

What is ... ?:

The hip joint is a "ball and socket" joint: the "ball" (the top part of the thigh bone or femur) fits into a "socket" formed by the pelvis. If there is a loose fit between these bones, and the ligaments which help to hold them together are loose, the ball may slide part way out of the socket (subluxate). With time, as this occurs repeatedly, other degenerative changes in the joint occur (also called osteoarthritis) and your dog will become painful, lame and weak in the hind end.
This disease is progressive; that is, it gets worse with time.

How is ... inherited?:

The mode of inheritance of this disease is polygenic (caused by many different genes). Scientists do not yet know which genes are involved, or how many genes. Factors that can make the disease worse include excess weight, a fast growth rate, and high-calorie or supplemented diets.

What breeds are affected by ... ?:

What does ... mean to your dog & you?:

While there is a severe form of hip dysplasia that affects young dogs (less than one year of age), signs of this disease are most common in older dogs. The loose fit at the hip joint will be present in young dogs, but it may take years for the other changes (such as osteoarthritis) to cause pain. Your dog may be painful after exercise, have difficulty with stairs, or even have difficulty getting up. You may only notice this once in a while, but over time you will find it getting worse. There is no cure, but your dog’s pain and lameness may be reduced by making sure that s/he is not overweight, restricting exercise, and using pain-relieving medications and/or alternative therapies such as acupuncture.
Large and giant-breed dogs are more likely to get hip dysplasia later in life if they are overfed and gain weight quickly as puppies. If you have such a puppy, you may be able to reduce the chance of future hip dysplasia by careful feeding. Your veterinarian can help you determine the right body weight and diet for your dog.

How is ... diagnosed?:

Your veterinarian will probably suspect hip dysplasia if your large or giant breed dog has pain or lameness in the hips. Your vet will take x-rays to evaluate the general fit of the femur and pelvis, and to look for any osteoarthritic changes in the hip joint. Usually sedation or anaesthesia is required to ensure proper positioning of the dog. In order to see how much looseness there is in the hip joint, your veterinarian may take special stress or distraction radiographs.

How is ... treated?:

The degree to which the hips are dysplastic does not always correlate with the amount of pain. Some dogs with very bad hips radiographically are less painful than others whose x-rays show only minor changes.
Although there is no cure for hip dysplasia, there are ways to manage the pain. Your veterinarian will work with you to keep your dog comfortable. Treatments include anti-inflammatory drugs and/ or alternative therapies such as acupuncture. Nutraceuticals such as glucosamine may also be helpful. Controlling exercise and maintaining your dog at an appropriate weight, are important in managing the pain.
Your veterinarian may suggest surgery (such as hip replacement) if the pain is severe, and/or can not be controlled by medical treatment as above.

For the veterinarian:

There are several established scoring systems to evaluate radiographs for the presence of hip dysplasia. The Orthopedic Foundation for Animals evaluates a standard ventrodorsal view with hips extended and stifles rotated internally. Radiographs are scored based on degenerative joint changes and evidence of subluxation. Dogs must be 2 years of age in order to be certified by the OFA.
The PennHip method uses a quantitative measure of joint laxity (based on distraction and compression views) to determine the Distraction Index (DI), as well as the standard hip-extended view, to evaluate a dog for hip dysplasia (see Smith and McKelvie,1995, below). Dogs may be evaluated by this technique as young as 16 weeks of age.

Breeding advice:

Canine hip dysplasia remains a problem in most large and giant breeds of dog, despite efforts to control this condition dating back to the 1960s. Because it is virtually impossible to determine the exact genotype, it is difficult to control defects like hip dysplasia that have a polygenic mode of inheritance. The best attempts at control are based on a grading scheme for identification of the defect and a breed policy of recording and publishing the results for as many dogs as possible.
Breed organizations and veterinarians in various countries have developed control programmes that rely on radiographic evaluation and a central registry of dogs. Dogs from large and giant breeds should be evaluated by one of these established screening programmes before breeding, and should be bred based on the guidelines of that programme. The distraction index (DI) is determined by the PennHip technique and is statistically the most predictive method for hip joints in pups. Essentially, the best way for breeders to prevent hip dysplasia is to breed only dogs that have disease-free joints, based on appropriate radiographic evaluation, and that come from families with disease-free joints. Do not breed dogs whose offspring have hip dysplasia (dogs with hip dysplasia can produce normal offspring, and normal-appearing dogs can produce offspring with hip dysplasia).
Two registries that keep statistics on hip dysplasia are the Institute for Genetic Disease Control (GDC - www.vetmed.ucdavis.edu/gdc/gdc.html) and the Orthopedic Foundation for Animals (OFA - www.offa.org) Thoughtful selection by breeders, using dogs from these registries, has reduced the incidence of hip dysplasia in some breeds and some areas.
FOR MORE INFORMATION ABOUT THIS DISORDER, PLEASE SEE YOUR VETERINARIAN.

Resources:

Leighton EA. 1997. Genetics of canine hip dysplasia. JAVMA 210(10):1474-1479.
Martinez SA. 1997. Congenital conditions that lead to osteoarthritis in the dog. Veterinary Clinics of North America Small Animal Practice. 27(4):735-758.
Richardson DC. 1995. Developmental orthopedics: Nutritional influences in the dog. In EJ Ettinger and EC Feldman (eds) Textbook of Veterinary Internal Medicine, p. 252-258. WB Saunders Co., Toronto.
Smith GK, McKelvie PJ. 1995. Current concepts in the diagnosis of canine hip dysplasia. In JD Bonagura (ed) Kirk's Current Veterinary Therapy XII Small Animal Practice p. 1180-1188. WB Saunders Co., Toronto. Describes PennHip technique.
Smith GK. 1998. Advances in diagnosis of canine hip dysplasia. ACVIM-Proceedings of the 16th Annual Veterinary Medical Forum. p. 569-571.
Swenson L, Audell L, Hedhammar A. 1997. Prevalence and inheritance of and selection for hip dysplasia in seven breeds of dogs in Sweden and benefit cost analysis of sceening and control program. JAVMA 210(2):207-214.

Legg-Calvé-Perthes disease

roblib — Wed, 28 Apr 2010 18:08:31 +0000

What is ... ?:

This is a disease of the hip joint in young (4 to 12 months), small-breed dogs. The hip is a ball and socket joint: the ball (the top part of the thigh bone or head of the femur) fits into a socket formed by the pelvic bone. With this disease, there is degeneration or death (necrosis) of the growth (ossification) centre in the head of the femur. This causes severe pain and lameness.

What breeds are affected by ... ?:

What does ... mean to your dog & you?:

A young dog affected with this disease will gradually develop pain and lameness in 1 hind leg, which slowly worsens over 3 or 4 weeks. The pain will become quite severe, and there is usually muscle shrinkage (atrophy) in the affected leg. This disease is treated quite successfully with surgery, so that your dog can live a normal pain-free life. If treated very early, surgery is sometimes not necessary.

How is ... diagnosed?:

Your veterinarian will suspect this disease if your young toy or small-breed dog shows signs of pain and lameness in the hip joint. Usually only one hip is affected, but occasionally both are involved. Depending on how far the disease has progressed, there may be muscle wasting (atrophy) in the affected limb. Radiographs will show whether your dog has the characteristic features of this disease, and also if there are other bony degenerative changes to the hip. Diagnosis is confirmed with a bone biopsy.

How is ... treated?:

If diagnosed early (before much bony change to the head of the femur), the disease can sometimes be treated by pain relievers and by putting the hind leg in a sling for a period so that it doesn't bear weight. More often though, once pain and lameness are severe, the only treatment is to surgically remove the damaged (necrotic) head of the femur. This procedure effectively eliminates the source of the pain, and your dog should have a good quality of life thereafter.

Breeding advice:

Affected dogs and their parents (considered carriers) should not be bred. Siblings are suspect carriers. A registry is maintained by the Institute for Genetic Disease Control in Animals (www.vetmed.ucdavis.edu/gdc/gdc.html) for Legg-Calvé-Perthes disease in terriers and miniature and toy poodles. Using the registry, breeders can select dogs for breeding with no family history of this disease.
FOR MORE INFORMATION ABOUT THIS DISORDER, PLEASE SEE YOUR VETERINARIAN.

Resources:

Ackerman L. 1999. The Genetic Connection: A Guide to Health Problems in Purebred Dogs, pp.120-121. AAHA Press,Lakewood, Colorado.

Bennett D, May C. 1995. Joint diseases of dogs and cats. In EJ Ettinger and EC Feldman(eds). Textbook of Veterinary Internal Medicine, pp. 2032-2077.WB Saunders Co., Toronto

Schrader SC . 1995. Differential diagnosis of nontraumatic causes of lameness in young growing dogs. In JD Bonagura and RW Kirk(eds.) Kirk's Current Veterinary Therapy XII Small Animal Practice. p. 1171-1180. WB Saunders Co., Toronto.

Masticatory muscle myositis - eosinophilic myositis

roblib — Wed, 28 Apr 2010 18:16:50 +0000

What is ... ?:

This disease affects the masticatory muscles - the large muscles on the top and sides of the head which act to close the jaw. These muscles have a unique muscle protein composition. Masticatory muscle myositis is an immune-mediated disease in which the body’s immune system attacks the unique muscle protein found in the masticatory muscles. This causes the muscles to become painful and swollen initially, and the muscles will atrophy as the disease progresses. Opening the mouth is particularly painful.

How is ... inherited?:

Unknown.

What breeds are affected by ... ?:

German shepherd

What does ... mean to your dog & you?:

Many dogs affected with masticatory muscle myositis will improve with drug therapy.

How is ... diagnosed?:

Your veterinarian will suspect this disease if your dog has painful, swollen masticatory muscles, with pain on opening the jaw. The diagnosis can be confirmed with a muscle biopsy to examine the cells with a microscope. Special techniques may be used to test for specific antibodies.

How is ... treated?:

Affected dogs are usually treated medically, with glucocorticoids such as prednisone. Most dogs improve with drug therapy, although the treatment may be long-term.

Breeding advice:

Affected animals should not be bred.
FOR MORE INFORMATION ABOUT THIS DISORDER, PLEASE SEE YOUR VETERINARIAN.

Resources:

Kornegay JN. 1995. Disorders of the skeletal muscles. In EJ Ettinger and EC Feldman (eds) Textbook of Veterinary Internal Medicine, p.727-736. WB Saunders Co., Toronto.

Ackerman L. 1999. The Genetic Connection: A Guide to Health Problems in Purebred Dogs, p. 121. AAHA Press,Lakewood, Colorado.

Myotonia

roblib — Wed, 28 Apr 2010 18:25:13 +0000

What is ... ?:

This disease affects skeletal (voluntary) muscle, such as the muscles of the limbs. Muscles are unable to relax normally following contraction (or electrical stimulation). This results in a stiff, awkward gait, difficulty in rising, and stiff joints.

How is ... inherited?:

In chow chows, myotonia is believed to be inherited as an autosomal recessive trait.

What breeds are affected by ... ?:

Chow chow

What does ... mean to your dog & you?:

While there is no cure for this disease, affected dogs will often remain stable, without worsening of clinical signs, with drug therapy.

How is ... diagnosed?:

Your veterinarian will suspect this disease if your dog shows the characteristic signs of delayed muscle relaxation. Your dog may have difficulty rising, and a stiff gait (although gait will become more normal as the dog ‘warms up’). Muscles may be hypertophied (large and well-developed) and it may be difficult to flex the limbs. Diagnosis is confirmed by analyzing muscle response to electrical stimulation (electromyography) and by evaluation of muscle biopsies.

How is ... treated?:

There is no cure for this disease, although drug therapy (eg. procainamide) helps many dogs.

Breeding advice:

Affected dogs should not be bred. Parents of affected chow chows are carriers, and siblings are suspect carriers, and so should not be used for breeding.
FOR MORE INFORMATION ABOUT THIS DISORDER, PLEASE SEE YOUR VETERINARIAN.

Resources:

Kornegay JN. 1995. Disorders of the skeletal muscles. In EJ Ettinger and EC Feldman (eds) Textbook of Veterinary Internal Medicine, p.727-736. WB Saunders Co., Toronto.

Ackerman L. 1999. The Genetic Connection: A Guide to Health Problems in Purebred Dogs, 122. AAHA Press,Lakewood, Colorado.

Odontoid process dysplasia

roblib — Wed, 28 Apr 2010 18:28:09 +0000

What is ... ?:

These diseases involve a malformation of the second vertebral bone in the neck. The first two vertebrae of the neck have distinctive shapes. The joint between these two bones is also unique, as it allows rotation of the head — movement at this joint lets you shake your head to say "no". One special feature of the second neck vertebra which allows this rotation is a peg-like projection of bone called the dens or odontoid process. "Odontoid process dysplasia" means that this projection is missing or is abnormally small. Dogs with a malformed dens have a weak link at the joint between the first two neck vertebrae, and can dislocate this joint. If the joint dislocates, their spinal cord is compressed, which is a serious problem causing pain, weakness, or paralysis. Sometimes the dens is normal, but dislocation can happen because the ligaments supporting the joint are weak.

How is ... inherited?:

Unknown.

What does ... mean to your dog & you?:

This disease often leads to dislocation of the joint between the first two vertebrae, causing spinal cord compression. Spinal cord compression is a serious problem which causes pain, weakness, or inability to get up or walk, and usually requires surgery. You will probably not know that your dog has this disease until dislocation occurs. This is most common in young dogs (up to one year of age).

How is ... diagnosed?:

X-rays will show if the dens is normal or malformed. If your dog has signs of cervical spinal cord compression (pain, weakness, or paralysis), your veterinarian will take radiographs (x-rays) to determine the cause of the compression.

How is ... treated?:

If your dog has spinal cord compression caused by dislocation of the joint between the first two vertebrae, surgery is generally required. In addition to relieving the compression, the surgeon will have to stabilize the joint so it does not dislocate again. He/she may have to implant wires, screws, or plates to stabilize the joint.
In certain mild cases, your dog may only need medical management and stabilization with a foam collar (similar to the neck collar used with human neck injuries).

Breeding advice:

Dogs in whom this condition has been identified should not be used for breeding. Although little is known about the inheritance of this disorder, it is preferable to avoid breeding their parents as well.
FOR MORE INFORMATION ABOUT THIS DISORDER, PLEASE SEE YOUR VETERINARIAN.

Resources:

Bailey CS, Morgan JP. 1992. Congenital spinal malformations. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice. 224(4):985-1015.

Coates JR, Kline KI. 1995. Congenital and inherited neurologic disorders in dogs and cats. In JD Bonagura and RW Kirk (eds) Kirk's Current Veterinary Therapy XII Small Animal Practice. pp. 111-1120. WB Saunders Co., Toronto.
LeCouteur RA, Child G. 1995. Diseases of the spinal cord. In EJ Ettinger and EC Feldman (eds) Textbook of Veterinary Internal Medicine, pp. 629-696. WB Saunders Co., Toronto.

Osteochondrodysplasia - skeletal dwarfism

roblib — Wed, 28 Apr 2010 18:41:33 +0000

What is ... ?:

Most bones in the body are first formed of cartilage, which is gradually replaced by bone early in life. Irregularities in this process will result in bones which are abnormal in size or shape. Osteochondrodysplasia describes a range of disorders which are characterized by abnormal growth of cartilage and bone. These disorders typically result in skeletal dwarfism, with the limbs of an animal being disproportionately short.
Most of the disorders classified as osteochondrodysplasias affect the bones of the limbs, such that the limbs are short relative to body length, but some forms also affect the formation and growth of vertebrae, resulting in a body which is abnormally short. Breeds such as the dachshund and basset hound have been selectively bred for dwarfism; this discussion concerns the osteochondrodysplasias in breeds where dwarfism is not part of the breed standard.

How is ... inherited?:

This condition is autosomal recessive in several of the breeds in which it occurs.

What breeds are affected by ... ?:

What does ... mean to your dog & you?:

There is a range in the severity of problems caused by this condition. Mildly affected dogs may have short stature due to short limbs, with no associated clinical problems. Progressively more severe effects include bowed limbs, or limbs which are angled to the side, enlarged and deformed joints, joint looseness, lameness, decreased ability to exercise, and severe debilitation. Animals with this condition are more likely to develop arthritis and joint pain.

How is ... diagnosed?:

Your veterinarian will make this diagnosis based on your dog's physical appearance; x-rays may be taken to confirm the diagnosis, or to screen puppies less than 13 weeks of age for this condition.

How is ... treated?:

There is no specific treatment or cure for this disease. Intermittent joint pain can be treated with pain killers and anti-inflammatory drugs (eg. buffered aspirin). In some cases, surgery may be recommended to help to correct a deformity.

Breeding advice:

Affected dogs, their parents (carriers of the disorder), and siblings (suspect carriers) should not be bred.
FOR MORE INFORMATION ABOUT THIS DISORDER, PLEASE SEE YOUR VETERINARIAN.

Resources:

Ackerman L. 1999. The Genetic Connection: A Guide to Health Problems in Purebred Dogs, p. 126. AAHA Press,Lakewood, Colorado

Johnson KA, Watson ADJ, Page RL. 1995. Skeletal diseases. In EJ Ettinger and EC Feldman(eds) Textbook of Veterinary Internal Medicine, p. 2087 WB Saunders Co., Toronto

Panosteitis

roblib — Wed, 28 Apr 2010 18:50:18 +0000

What is ... ?:

Panosteitis ("pano") is a relatively common disease which causes pain and lameness in young (6 to 18 months), medium to large breed dogs. There is inflammation in the long bones of the front and hind legs (humerus, ulna, and radius of the forelimb, and the femur and tibia of the hindlimb). The cause of this disease is unknown; diet and heredity may both play a role.
The lameness will appear suddenly, for no apparent reason. It may be difficult to decide which limb is affected, as the lameness may shift from limb to limb over time. Eventually the clinical signs of this disease (pain and lameness) will go away, but some of the changes to the structure of the bones may be permanent.

How is ... inherited?:

Unknown

What breeds are affected by ... ?:

What does ... mean to your dog & you?:

Lameness will appear suddenly, for no apparent reason, and may shift from limb to limb. In the early stages, your dog may experience loss of appetite, fever, lethargy and weight loss. Pain may be mild or severe.
This disease generally resolves over time. During the episodes of pain and lameness, your veterinarian may prescribe medication to help alleviate the pain, and restricted exercise for your dog.

How is ... diagnosed?:

Your veterinarian will suspect panosteitis based on the history of lameness which developed suddenly and was not caused by trauma, your dog's age and size, and physical examination - the long bones of your dog's front or hind limbs will be sore when examined. Your dog may appear to be lame on different legs at different times, instead of the lameness being confined to a single limb - this is called "shifting lameness." X-rays are necessary to rule out other diseases or injuries, and to confirm the diagnosis of panosteitis.

How is ... treated?:

This disease is generally self-limiting; bouts of lameness usually last about 1 to 3 months and generally cease entirely by about 2 years of age. Treatment consists of drugs to alleviate pain and lameness, as well as restrictions on your dog's activity.

For the veterinarian:

There are 3 radiographic stages (the first is seen infrequently):
i) medullary radiolucency due to bone marrow degeneration;
ii) hazy, granular increased radiopacity beginning in the area of the nutrient foramen and spreading throughout the medullary cavity (new endosteal bone and a thin layer of periosteal bone are secondary changes); and
iii) a return to normal appearance, although some bones have residual thickening of medullary trabeculae and cortical deformity.

Breeding advice:

Dogs affected by panosteitis should not be used for breeding, even when the clinical signs of pain and lameness have gone away. Not enough is known about the inheritance of this condition to make breeding recommendations for close relatives of affected dogs.
FOR MORE INFORMATION ABOUT THIS DISORDER, PLEASE SEE YOUR VETERINARIAN.

Resources:

Johnson KA, Watson ADJ, Page RL. 1995. Skeletal diseases. In EJ Ettinger and EC Feldman(eds). Textbook of Veterinary Internal Medicine, p. 2089-2090, 2116. WB Saunders Co., Toronto.

Ackerman L. 1999. The Genetic Connection: A Guide to Health Problems in Purebred Dogs, pp.126-127. AAHA Press,Lakewood, Colorado.

Patellar luxation

roblib — Wed, 28 Apr 2010 18:54:31 +0000

What is ... ?:

The knee cap (patella) normally fits into a groove in the thigh bone (femur). The patella slides up and down in this groove as the leg bends and straightens. Patellar luxation means that the knee cap has slipped out of the groove. There are several reasons why this happens, including malformation of the groove. Luxation may happen only occasionally, or may happen continuously. The knee cap may pop back into the groove on its own, or your veterinarian may need to push it back into place. Your dog will be lame when the patella is out of place. Over time your dog may develop other degenerative joint changes, such as osteoarthritis.

How is ... inherited?:

The mode of inheritance is not yet known. Some researchers think that this disease may be polygenic.

What breeds are affected by ... ?:

What does ... mean to your dog & you?:

When present, the condition is usually evident in young dogs by around 6 months of age, but if mild it may go unnoticed until the dog is older. When the knee cap is out of place, your dog will be lame and may refuse to bear weight, or his/her knee may be "locked". The severity of the condition varies widely. In mild cases, the knee cap may only slip out of place occasionally, causing your dog to "hop" for a few steps, and then it may slide back into the groove on its own. In severe cases, the knee cap slips out of place more often, or is never in a normal position. It may not go back into the groove on its own and your veterinarian may need to push it back into place.
As a result of patellar luxation, your dog may develop other degenerative joint changes, such as osteoarthritis. If your dog has a mild case of this disease, you may not notice the actual luxation, but your dog may eventually develop pain due to osteoarthritis.

How is ... diagnosed?:

Your veterinarian will diagnose this disease based on physical examination and palpation. He/she may take radiographs to see if your dog has other problems (such as osteoarthritis) as a result of this disease.

How is ... treated?:

The treatment and long term outcome (prognosis) depend on the severity of disease (how often the knee cap slips out of place, and how easily it slips back into the normal position), and whether there are other problems such as osteoarthritis. Moderate or severe cases often require surgery to make sure that the knee cap stays in the groove in the femur, and to prevent painful osteoarthritis. Exercise restriction is important for a period after surgery, and the results are usually very good.
For the veterinarian:

Patellar luxation may be classified in four grades, with grade I being the most mild. Mild patellar luxation may be discovered as an incidental finding. Severe cases in growing dogs may result in limb deformity. Surgery is usually recommended in moderate or severe cases to stabilize the patella and correct the underlying anatomic deformity. Surgical correction may or may not stop the progression of degenerative joint disease, and reluxation is a possible complication of surgery.

Breeding advice:

Affected dogs, as well as their parents, their litter-mates, and any dog which has had surgery for patellar luxation, should not be bred. The Orthopedic Foundation of America - www.offa.org - and Institute for Genetic Disease Control in Animals - www.vetmed.ucdavis.edu/gdc/gdc.html - have registries for this condition.
FOR MORE INFORMATION ABOUT THIS DISORDER, PLEASE SEE YOUR VETERINARIAN.

Resources:

Martinez SA. 1997. Congenital conditions that lead to osteoarthritis in the dog. Veterinary Clinics of North America Small Animal Practice. pp. 261-290.

X-linked muscular dystrophy

roblib — Wed, 28 Apr 2010 19:00:03 +0000

What is ... ?:

This inherited disease is caused by the lack of a single specific protein (dystrophin) which is normally found in muscle fibres. This disease is similar to Duchenne muscular dystrophy in humans. The first sign is usually difficulty in swallowing, which is seen as early as 6-8 weeks of age. The clinical signs will progress from poor suckling to generalized muscle weakness and exercise intolerance to muscle withering (atrophy), curvature of the spine, muscle contractures, and heart problems.

How is ... inherited?:

The trait is sex-linked. This means that it is carried by females (clinically unaffected) whose male offspring will have a 50 per cent chance of developing the disease.

What breeds are affected by ... ?:

What does ... mean to your dog & you?:

Unfortunately this is a severe, debilitating, progressive disease. It may progress rapidly or more slowly, and your dog will gradually become weaker and more debilitated. There is no specific treatment or cure.

How is ... diagnosed?:

Your veterinarian will suspect this disease if your young pup exhibits a combination of the following clinical signs: generalized muscle weakness and atrophy, exercise intolerance, abnormal gait, excessive drooling, abnormal spinal curvature. This diagnosis can be confirmed with blood tests (to look for elevated muscle enzymes), muscle biopsy, electromyography, and a neurological exam.

How is ... treated?:

There is no cure or specific treatment for this disease. Some of the clinical signs may be treated with drugs, and physiotherapy may also be helpful.

Breeding advice:

Affected dogs should not be bred. The mother of any affected dog is a carrier of the condition and should not be used for breeding purposes.
FOR MORE INFORMATION ABOUT THIS DISORDER, PLEASE SEE YOUR VETERINARIAN.

Resources:

Kornegay JN. 1995. Disorders of the skeletal muscles. In EJ Ettinger and EC Feldman (eds) Textbook of Veterinary Internal Medicine, pp.727-736. WB Saunders Co., Toronto.

Ackerman L. 1999. The Genetic Connection: A Guide to Health Problems in Purebred Dogs pp.121-122. AAHA Press,Lakewood, Colorado.

Intervertebral disk disease

roblib — Fri, 30 Apr 2010 16:41:45 +0000

What is ... ?:

Anatomy of the vertebral column and spinal cord: The vertebral column, or backbone, is made up of a series of small bones, the vertebrae. These bones surround and protect the spinal cord, the large collection of nerves through which information is transmitted between the body and brain. The spinal cord must be intact and undamaged in order to feel sensations (including touch and pain), and for normal movement of the body and limbs. The individual vertebrae are separated by intervertebral disks. These soft tissue structures allow for normal movement between the vertebrae, and also act as shock absorbers. The structure of these disks is important in understanding this disease. Each disk is composed of an outer layer, which is fibrous, and an inner portion, which is a jelly-like mass. The outer fibrous layer (called the annulus fibrosus) acts to contain the inner jelly-like portion (the nucleus pulposus) and prevent it from bulging outwards.

Intervertebral disk disease (IVDD) occurs when the jelly-like inner layer protrudes, or herniates, into the vertebral canal and presses on the spinal cord. Compression of the spinal cord may be minimal (causing mild back or neck pain) to severe (causing paralysis, loss of sensation, and lack of bladder and bowel control) and may be irreversible.
Problems are most commonly seen in the thoracolumbar (lower back) region of the spine, and are also seen in the cervical (neck) region. IVDD is seldom a concern in the thoracic (upper back) region, because extra ligaments connect the ribs and help to reinforce the annulus fibrosus.
Type I IVDD primarily occurs in chondrodystrophoid (or chondrodysplastic) breeds such as the bassett hound, dachshund and corgi. These dogs were bred to have short, thick legs, and although this is normal for the breed, it is basically the result of abnormal development of cartilage. The intervertebral disks in these dogs gradually become more like cartilage than fibrous tissue; this increases the risk of rupture of the annulus fibrosus and herniation of the nucleus pulposus into the vertebral canal, causing IVDD. Disk herniation in these dogs occurs at a relatively young age (3 to 6 years), commonly occurs at several sites in the back, and causes intense pain.
Fibrous degeneration of disks (without calcification) occurs in older dogs of all breeds, but generally only causes problems in large-breed dogs. This is Type II IVDD; protrusion of disk material (without complete rupture of the annular layer as in Type I) usually only occurs at 1 disk and the clinical signs (pain, weakness or paralysis) generally develop more slowly and are less severe than with Type I IVDD.
With occasional exceptions, the Doberman pinsher is the only nonchondrodysplastic large breed dog to be affected by Type I IVDD, commonly in the neck region (cervical vertebral instability, or Wobbler's).

How is ... inherited?:

Unknown.

What breeds are affected by ... ?:

What does ... mean to your dog & you?:

The clinical signs vary, depending on whether there is type I or II IVDD, where in the spine the herniation occurs, and the extent of the protrusion of disk material into the spinal canal. Signs with type I generally develop more quickly (over hours or even minutes) and are more severe. Depending on the location and extent of the pressure on the spinal cord, there may be pain in the neck region, lack of pain sensation in the limbs, and weakness or paralysis in any or all limbs. This is a very serious disease, which may result in permanent hindlimb paralysis and incontinence if left untreated. While confinement may help initially in some cases, surgery is often required to relieve pressure on the spinal cord. The outcome will depend on a number of factors (including the severity of clinical signs, whether pain perception is still present, and length of time between the onset of clinical signs and surgery, to name a few). While surgery may restore the animal to normal function, it is not always successful.

With type II IVDD, clinical signs usually develop slowly over months. Again there may be pain, and weakness or paralysis in any or all limbs.

How is ... diagnosed?:

Your veterinarian will strongly suspect spinal cord compression due to intervertebral disk disease if your chondrodystrophoid-breed dog presents with neck or back pain, +/- hindlimb weakness or paralysis. Your dog may also become incontinent. Your veterinarian will examine your dog, and perform a neurologic exam to test your dog’s reflexes and the function of nerves. The absence or in some cases, heightening, of reflexes will help to determine where the pressure on the spinal cord is occurring. Plain x-rays of the vertebral column are taken of suspect areas, to locate abnormalities of the vertebrae or mineralization of the intervertebral discs. A specialized radiographic technique called myelography is necessary to pinpoint the areas of spinal cord compression, if surgical repair is being considered. In order to do a myelogram, your dog is anesthetized, dye is injected into the spinal canal, and x-rays are taken which will show the exact location(s) of spinal cord compression. A spinal tap, also performed under general anesthesia, is done to obtain a sample of cerebrospinal fluid and rule out other causes of your dog's spinal cord disease. Your veterinarian may refer you to a veterinary referral centre for these specialized radiographic techniques, and for possible surgery.

How is ... treated?:

Treatment depends on several factors, including the extent and duration of clinical signs, and the findings on neurologic and radiographic examination.Surgery is the only way to remove disc material which is compressing the spinal cord, but surgery is not necessarily the first treatment of choice. Medical treatment may be successful when there is only mild to moderate pain, and no weakness or paralysis. Medical, or conservative, treatment consists of anti-inflammatory medication in combination with strict cage rest (your dog will be confined to a cage, and let out only to urinate and defecate while on a leash). If your dog's condition worsens, or there is no sign of improvement within a week or so, surgical treatment should be considered.

Surgery will be recommended, and will be necessary, if your dog shows more severe neurologic signs, or if your dog has repeated episodes of pain and muscle weakness. Where there is paralysis and loss of deep pain sensation, surgery to remove the pressure on the spinal cord should be performed within 24 hours, or there is likely to be permanent nerve damage.
The prognosis (prospect for recovery) after surgery ranges from fair to good, depending on factors such as the severity of clinical signs before surgery, the rapidity with which the signs developed, and the length of the interval between the onset of problems and surgery. Where there has been paralysis and loss of deep pain perception for more than 24 hours, surgery is not likely to result in improvement.
Once your veterinarian has examined your dog, s/he will discuss treatment options with you. If surgery appears to be the best option, s/he will likely discuss with you referral to an appropriate surgical facility, because of the specialized radiographic and surgical techniques required. With either surgical or medical treatment, intensive nursing care will be required.

For the veterinarian:

Although signs with type I IVDD usually progress more rapidly, this is not always the case. Also, there may be periods of improvement and subsequent deterioration over weeks or months (perhaps due to extrusion of small amounts of disk material over time). Neurologic deficits depend on the location of the injury. The main clinical sign with type I cervical spine disk disease is pain; less commonly there are proprioceptive deficits and tetraparesis or tetraplegia. Signs with type I thoracolumbar disease are generally more severe, and range from abdominal or back pain, to complete paraplegia and lack of deep pain perception.

Clinical signs with type II disease generally progress more slowly; paraparesis or tetraparesis are the most common findings. As with type I disease, deficits may be asymmetric.

Breeding advice:

It is difficult to make breeding recommendations because, although the condition is common in some breeds, a mode of inheritance has not been determined. It is best to avoid breeding affected animals, and to carefully scrutinize their close relatives before including them in a breeding programme.

FOR MORE INFORMATION ABOUT THIS DISORDER, PLEASE SEE YOUR VETERINARIAN.

Resources:

LeCouteur RA, Child G. 1995. Diseases of the spinal cord. In EJ Ettinger and EC Feldman (eds) Textbook of Veterinary Internal Medicine, p. 629-696. WB Saunders Co., Toronto.
Bennett D, May C. 1995. Joint diseases of dogs and cats. In EJ Ettinger and EC Feldman (eds) Textbook of Veterinary Internal Medicine, p. 2032-2077. WB Saunders Co., Toronto.

Stigen O, Christensen K. 1996. Calcification of intervertebral discs in the dachshund: an estimation of heritability. ACTA Veterinaria Scandinavica 34(3): 357-361.